From declaring Joaquim Chisano president in 1999 when Afonso Dhlakama had the most votes, to naming Frelimo victor in Maputo and Matola when Renamo had most votes in 2023, shows Mozambique’s mix of ruling party dominance and total secrecy has permitted fraud in nearly all elections. But a CIP study shows the shape of electoral fraud has changed. For 20 years, it was increasingly organised, but remained largely covert. The image remained of free and fair elections, and that voting could bring change. In the elections in 2018, 2019 and 2023, fraud was blatant and obvious. The message was different, voting changes nothing and Frelimo decides who wins.

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